Introduction
The purpose of this foray into
14th century linen used for outer clothing stems from a world-wide
interest among historical re-enactors and living historians who
primarily live in hot countries and feel that wool is not a viable
option for them.
While a number of manuscripts show workers in hot countries stipped
down to their linen undergarments while they perform manual labour,
it has been a burning question- for the middle working classes,
could kirtles and gowns be made from coloured linen? Was it done?
Did it happen?
Obviously, sources are limited, so we must be guided by what few
references we have, and decide from there whether it is felt that
coloured linen outer clothing was worn by regular housewives and
merchants often enough to be considered a ususal thing to be unremarked
upon or whether it's more the exception than the rule.
We are not searching for evidence that it happened ever, but that
it happened enough to be considered common enough for daily wear
in historical re-creation as an accurate representation on 14th
century daily life. We know quite a bit about trending fashions
in clothing. At times, clothing was dictated by nothing more than
what was deemed fashionable, other times by more practical things,
like what was available locally, what was spun at home domestically,
and what was handed down in wills and bequests or what was deemed
medically best according to the properties of the cloth. We know
that linen was used extensively for undergarments for both men and
women throughout the entire medieval period. Although silk was also
sometimes used, linen is the staple fabric and generally aceepted
to be what we use in living history representations.
Linen clothing is mentioned
prior to and after the 14th century, with 15th century Flemish wills
reporting more examples of linen outer clothing than previously
and fragments of 15th century linen clothing were uncovered at Lengberg
Castle excavations. Written references during the 14th century can
be tricky as terms like "smock" could mean underwear (as
another word for chemise), or an extremely simply made garment with
almost no tailoring (as opposed to kirtle and gown, both of which
usually indicate shaping around the torso.)
Following each item, I have
added my personal thoughts (cunningly titled "Rosalie's
Notes") Please be aware that these are my own personal,
private thoughts on each of these items and that you are quite at
liberty to form your own opposing opinions with absolutely no disagreement
from me! These are my thoughts and you may have opposing
thoughts of your own and that's quite okay. We're sharing our thoughts
here in a spirit of enquiry. I'd like to add that on a personal
note I was very much on the "Oh please let there be linen"
camp when I started compiling.
Sources
1. Linen male gown from an early 14th century townsman's will.
British Library, Ms. Cotton Vespasian E xxv, f.189; item 2. Norfolk
Record Office, King's Lynn borough records, Red Register, f.42.
" I wish my wife Matilda to have all these tenements for as
long as she lives, in fulfilment of her dowager right, as well as
(my) goods movable and immovable. I bequeath to my son Robert all
my vessels and utensils, of whatever kind and wherever they may
be, after the death of my wife Matilda; and it is my wish that my
wife Matilda, while she is alive, provide my son Robert each
year with a linen gown and give.. Robert whenever Robert may
give way to the wishes of his mother, showing her honour, reverance
and obediance, as a son is obliged to act towards his mother."
Contributed by Rosalie Gilbert.
(Rosalie's notes: As a
gown and not any kind of specific undergarment, I would imagine
that this is coloured. While this is a solid source, most of the
wills do not specify whether gowns were wool or linen, only saying
"I bequeath my best blue gown" or "my furred gown"
or "my second best kirtle" so although this is one absolute
source, the fact that it was mentioned as being a specific type
of fabric, may mean that it was not the usual type of thing. This
is by no means certain. It is a specific condition though, indication
that other types of gown are readily available and in use. And
for heaven's sake, I find one will reference and it's in England?
The coldest and most unlikely candidate for linen outers? England?
Really? Nothing from Italy? To be fair, my access to Italian wills
is non-existant, so there may be a wealth of untapped linen goodness
there. Fellow re-enactors in Italy were not able to produce any,
although time and enthusiasm for the project must be considered!)
2. Linen doublet lined with
linen.
"Doublets in the Great Wardrobe accounts from the 1340s usually
have three or more layers plus stuffing, but "A Wardrobe Account
of 16–17 Richard II, 1393–4." has a doublet of two
layers of linen called a dancing doublet." Contributed
by Rosalie Gilbert. Found on http://forums.armourarchive.org/phpBB3/viewtopic.php
(Rosalie's notes: I know
so little about men's doublets and quite frankly, I'm not about
to get into that whole can of worms. A second person also offered
that they had known of linen doublets, so perhaps this is solid.
It's towards the very end of the 14th century, so it would fit
with the increase of mentions in 15th century wills.)
3. Linen Clothing.
From the manuscript called The Four Seasons of the House of Cerruti
also known as The Tacuinum Sanatis of Vienna. XLVII. Linen
Clothing (Vestis Linea). Nature: Cold and dry in the second degree.
Optimum: The light, splendid, beautiful kind. Usefulness: It moderates
the heat the body. Dangers: It presses down on the skin and blocks
transpiration. Neutralization of the Dangers: By mixing it with
silk. Effects: It dries up ulcerations. It is primarily good
for hot temperaments, for the young, in Summer, and in the Southern
regions. contributed by Rosalie Gilbert.
(Rosalie's notes: This
is something I really like. Unlike other copies of the Tacuinum
Sanitatis which seem to be copied more faithfully from the original
Arabic, this one has been extensively revised with commentary
which indicates the original text and the current authors thoughts
for suitability for Vienese life and lifestyle. For example, Bananas
are faithfully illustrated and their properties written but the
text includes information stating that these are not available
in Italy and are not sold in shops or imported. Camel meat, which
I don't see in other copies of the TS is included along with text
saying the it is believed that camel meat has these certain properties
but it will never been seen in butchers locally and is not suitable
for our digestion. This is a recurring theme right throughout
the entire manuscript.
With this in mind, I feel that if the linen clothing prescribed
for the young, in summer and for old people does not apply to
current living conditions, the author would have said so, like
in earlier examples where he listed properties of a food but added
that they were not suited to current situations. I feel, therefore,
that linen clothing was at that point deemed suitable summer wear.
Woolen clothing, does not specifically say that it is only suited
to winter alone and is probably worn all year round also.)
4. Linen Clothing
Tacuinum Santiaits MS has an illumination of colored clothing
in a shop for "linen clothing". We can reasonably
assume these are outer clothes, not underwear, as per the picture,
that is another fortifying piece of the puzzle . This is from Nouvelle
acquisition latine 1673. I think that's the "Paris" TS,
but I could be misremembering. Contributed by Tasha Dandelion Kelly
from La Cotte Simple.
(Rosalie's notes: Athough
the manuscript text does not have the addendums which the TS Vienna
has, the illustrations are updated to show people in current fashions,
using modern household items and cooking equipment which are generally
accepted to be usable sources in re-enactment. The Linen Clothes
image shows not only white clothing in some versions of the manuscript,
but also a shop with coloured clothes hanging from the poles.
In this instance, I feel that the choice to illuminate the clothes
coloured was deliberate. In other pictures, colours seem to be
deliberate choices for specific items, which people don't seem
to have a problem accepting.)
5. Linen smocks and pinafores
for women
"Dress In The Middle Ages" by Francoise Piponnier
& Perrine Mane. Chapter on Vegetable fibres. p22. "Linen
was not simply used for undergarments: it was made into short
shirts and braies for men and long shifts for women. Once babies
had emerged from their swaddling clothes lined with linen, they
would often be clothed in short linen dresses which were easy to
care for. For adults, ....(info about veils and headwear).... Coarser
linen was used to make the smocks and pinafores worn as protection
for the clothes underneath; these were not however very widely used.
There is evidence that linen was waxed to make it waterproof in
the Middle ages... used for making window blinds...but in 14th century
England, it's use for outer garments is also recorded."
Contributed by Rosalie Gilbert.
(Rosalie's notes: The
authors are the Director of Studies at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes
en Sciences Sociales in Paris and the Head of research at the
Centre Nationale de Recherches Scientifiques in Paris, so they
have access to a lot of great research. The bibliography at the
back contains a huge amount of publications I've not even heard
of, let alone read, many in French. In other places in the book,
underclothes are specifically called chemises, sherts, braes.
On the subjects of "shifts for women", I would feel
that these are more like our equivellant to house-dresses. Perhaps
the more modest slightly shapless put-it-in-with-a-belt kind of
thing you'd wear at home. Linen "smocks and pinafores"
I feel may be more of the overgarment while you're working outside
to keep your gown clean- Luttrel Psalter style surcotes with high
armholes, popped on over the top while you do a few things, then
slipped off when the chores are done afterwards or the sort of
thing used as painting smocks- shapeless overgarments slipped
on and then off. This might be the forerunner to the pinafore
style apron we know from later in history, although we do know
that regular aprons are being worn. In the 1950's shift style
dresses were happily worn, and the term usually referred to those
little A-line dresses without waisted tailoring of the bodiece
and shirt also iconic in the 50's. I bring this up as it is mentioned
as a style. Obviously, the names of styles changed again and again
during the medieval period, but I feel it's an important use of
term at this time. I do feel that a coarse linen smock might be
a great option for working outside in hot weather also, BUT I
also feel that these are not the fitted kirtles and buttoned gowns
that we are hoping to find documentation for in our 14th century
linen outer garments search!
My final word on this one? Yes, for shapeless, A line-style overgown
for working in, no for clothing you'd leave the house in. Unlikely
to be brightly dyed, though possibly you might use the third dye
bath of your madder of woad for a soft pink or blue. I would think
that the first baths would be reserved for your wools which would
hold the colour much longer with vibrant results.)
6. Linen simple cotes
Luttrell Psalter by Janet Backhouse is my first reference...
early 14th Century English. Wool, linen simple cotes and surcotes
coloured with vegetable dye, nothing bright. Contributed by
Tonya Osborne Blake
(Rosalie's notes: I don't
have this book anymore, but will be replacing it. Again, this
information seems concurrent with working wear for the regular
people in rural settings. Townswomen would more than likely opt
for Not A Simple Cote or Surcote Thank You Very Much, Give Me
Something Tailored. Again, I feel that while dyes do achieve bright
colours on linens when brand new, they don't hold well in the
long run, so I feel if you had expensive dyes, your first choice
of things to dye with it would be stuff that is your better clothing,
your wools. Wools also hold dye well.)
7. Surcote and hood made
of linen
The Medieval Housewife by Toni Mount summarises the choice
of materials used to make the clothes would be determined by the
recipient's place in society. Continues later to state that underclothes,
surcote, hood and cloak may all he made of varying grades of
linen... Contributed by Tonya Osborne Blake.
(Rosalie's notes: The
author of this book, Toni Mount, joined us for her thoughts on
this subject, and said "My general view is still 'what would
be practical'? An 'ordinary' working woman would not risk soiling
her expensive gown - I believe she would wear her easily washable
linen kirtle/shift (with an apron) - yes, suitable dyed with a
local vegetable dye for everyday wear, then for best, 'according
to her station' whatever her favourite choice or purse could afford
." This seems to make a lot of sense to me and also fits
with the linen smock reference from Piponnier & Mane)
8. 14 linen tunics
The accounts of Edward III indicate 14 linen tunics were
a part of the preparations for the Feast of the Nativity in 1347.
These were probably more likely costumes of some kind given the
context. Contributed by Victoria Henige.
(Rosalie's notes: I'm
inclined to agree that they were possibly tunics for costumes
or special festival use, however in other sections, costumes are
described as being for costumes, so perhaps these may have been
a kind of livery or household servant kind of clothing. It's really
hard to tell given the information we have.
Really cheap wools were available at the time and let's be honest,
if you've read the reat of the accounts, there wasn't a lot of
corner cutting in the household going on, so the use of linen
seems to be deliberate and not a cost saving thing. Costumes which
were to be thrown out seems wasteful and often when items of clothing
were not to be used further, they were donated to the poor. So,
perhaps, my thoughts, the linen tunics were to be passed on to
the poor afterwards, inducating wearable clothing. Again, not
your everyday women's wear though.)
9. Potential kirtles
I've found these useful quotes in Sarah Thursfield's Medieval
Tailor's Assistant.
"Heavier linens and canvas were used for lining, interlining
and stiffening in tailored garments. None of these materials seem
to have been used for visible outer garments such as surcotes or
gowns, but were probably used for some kirtles and doublets."
(64) "Outer fabric - use medium or lightweight woollen material
or worsted; in a good strong colour for wealthier women, or an undyed,
light or muted shade for working dress. Linen may also have been
used and is certainly cooler under a gown in hot weather."
(86, in Kirtles) These are the best mentions I can find in MTA.
Contributed by Jenni Rokkianan
(Rosalie's notes: Sarah
Thursfield knows her stuff. Use of "probably" and "may"
are not a definite on either case, but is more of a common sense
thing. )
10. Linen clothing for children
To bolster the argument that children wore linen as clothing (not
just under-clothing), Cennino d'Andrea Cennini's Craftsman's
Handbook details how to block print and paint on linen, mentioning
that it's a good way to dress children (presumably because it's
much less expensive than dressing them in silk brocades- patterns
that mimic fine brocade can be printed on). I have the Dover edition
of this book, and his comments on this topic begin at the bottom
of p. 115. Contributed by Tasha Dandelion Kelly from A Cotte Simple.
(Rosalie's notes: Was
the Cennino d'Andrea Cennini's book 14th century? Thought it was
15th? It's a pretty cool reference to both linen clothing and
block printing!!! Does this indicate that grown women were wearing
linen outergarments? Very inconclusive but the fact that children
were wearing it seems to be unremarkable.)
11. Linen dresses for women
From Piers Plowman by William Langland. A New Translation
of the B Text. by A. V. C. Schmidt.
Oxford World Classics. Oxford University Press. 1992. p8. Contributed
by Rosalie Gilbert.
"A Lady with a beautiful face, clothed in a linen dress,
came down from the castle and called me in gracious tones..."
(Rosalie's notes: Well
she seems to be a well-bred lady he's talking about and unlikely
to be a poor woman in awful clothes, so it seems likely to take
it that the linen dress was of a good enough quality for a Lady
to be wearing.)
Other 14th Century Linen things
Linen Ecclesiastic garments
(Rosalie's notes: Multiple instances of linen garments in the
clergy, or worn by religious people, which is not to imply that
this was worn by everyday people. In fact, we know that clerical
wear was pretty much not typical of secular dress. It was either
plainer or heavily blinged up. For this reason, I'm not counting
linen outer garments from clergy as viable sources for our 14th
century outer wear.)
Flaming linen kirtles
We have 14/15 cent re-enactor friends in Spain. They had to wear
linen on account of the heat. Also, and I can't remember which source,
but it is stated that many women died in those centuries due to
severe burns, when their kirtles flamed whilst cooking. Contributed
by Andy Sherriff
(Rosalie's notes: I completely
have not heard of this before, and if anyone can help Andy out
with court rolls references to cause of death by kirtle catching
on fire, I think we all need to know! The type of kirtle seems
like the kind that many women would like to wear while recreating
cooking at events.)
Linen dyes and How To use
linen or wool to fake velvet
I don't know if this helps at all, but I have recipes on dying
linen: red, blue, green and yellow from Ms douce 54, and Bodleian
Rawlinson 506, and one on making fake gold velvet on linen cloth
from Ms sloane 1698. There is also one in MSR.14.44 #0372 about
making a thing seem velvet that says specifically you can use either
linen or wool. Contributionby Ellice de Valles.
(Rosalie's notes: The
dyes are all great but just looking at dye recipes, we have no
way of telling what the dyed linen was used for. I suspect that
they might have been used for tapestries or other household things
which were not laundered repeatedly and were more likely to keep
their colour. My thoughts! I suspect the using linen to make things
seems like velvet is linen thread rather than a linen garment,
but it's a cool reference I've always liked on the subject on
fake velvets.. especially the wools. There's a cloth called (musterdylles?)
which is specifically wool with a raised nap to imitate velvet
which is in there!)
Linen outer garments
Poland, Germany, Italy, and France wore linen as an outer garment
multiple sources found at Morgan Pierpoint libuary and the V&A,
especially late period as found on the Mary Rose. Contributed by
Susanne Miller.
(Rosalie's notes: No examples
of exact references for linen garments given. The Mary Rose finds
are late in the medieval period where we see more references in
will towards the end of the 15th century.)
Linen outer garments
20,000 Years of Fashion The History of Costume and Personal Adornment
by Francois Boucher. Contributed by Susanne Miller.
(Rosalie's notes: I don't
have this book anymore and from what I remember of it, it's quite
a big one. I'm not able to re-read it again at the moment looking
for sources. No examples of exact 14th century references to linen
garments given by Suzanne. People who own this book, please feel
free to weigh in on this one!)
Summary
This summary contains my own thoughts on the notes and contributions
which are gathered here with the thanks of all the people who contributed.
The reader is, of course, free to disagreeand use this same collaborative
information to draw differing conclusions. Also be aware that this
is only a small snippet of sources available including manuscripts
not ina language I can read, books inother countries and the amount
of time I have to track down things online and still hold down a
full time job. The onclusions are based on what we have here, and
can be updated at any given time with more information. I'm still
missing the reference from a tailor's shop inventory which I thought
had what I was looking for (the one with the women's underpants
reference in it.)
Conclusion
1- England.
In England, linen clothing was a thing, but in context. As far as
men are concerned, we know one one example out of many, many wills
which leads me to the conclusion that this was not the usual choice
for the middle and upper classes. As a solid representation of what
men wore in 14th century England, I'd say there is not enough evidence
for working class outerwear. It existed but it was not the usual
choice.
For women, the use of linen as an outer garment seems to be possible
in the context of a shift/smock type garment, worn over another
garment. Referencing a lot of will and bequeaths and other clothing
reference works all indicate that wool is the overwhelming choice
for women's main layer clothing. As far a historical re-creation
goes, linen outer clothing would not be an accurate representation
on English women's clothing. Smock over your wool, but not alone.
Conclusion
2- Europe.
In Europe, there seems to be a similar trend with wool being the
staple of every person's wardrobe with linen undergarment or accessories
like veils. Silks appear across the board as suitable wear for upper
classes. The exception for this seem to me to be Italy, where the
Tacuinum Sanitatis suggests linen clothing for hot weather. Generally
speaking, it seems to me that either stripping off down to your
linen underwear or a shapeless smock type garment often favoured
by the young and the elderly, was quite a possible thing. Fashion
in Italy seemed to take on a life of its own in may regards, with
abandoning the veils and wimples still popular in other parts of
the world earlier than most other countries, and the emergence of
laced renaissance style clothing appearing earlier than others.
I personally feel that clothing behaviours in Italy were mirrored
TO A DEGREE in other places, but I would be hesitant to use "They
were doing it in Italy" as proof that it was an acceptible
clothing practice n other parts of the world. Wool was still the
prime fabric for clothing at all social stratas. The quality and
thinness of the wool varied according to climate.
Conclusion
3- Historical Re-enacment.
Oh, how I wanted enough good sources to say linen for everyone everywhere!!
My thoughts. Did linen outer clothing exist at all in the 14th century?
I believe there is enough supporting evidence above to say yes.
It did exist. HOWEVER, is using dyed linen outer garments in the
shape of kirtles, cotehardies and fitted gowns an accurate and fair
representation of what people were wearing at that time? No. With
the exception of Italian summers (and if your group is Italian and
portrays Italians being Italian in the 14th century), wool is your
choice for an educated representation of what clothing was made
from. Silk and velvets for upper classes, and I heartily recommend
the silk!
Issues arising from using woolen
fabric I hear and have said myself when I was new, was that wool
is so hot and scratchy. This was until I had handled some wools
which are so light as to require lining as they are TOO SEE THROUGH!!
Some is soft and gorgeous. Wool suiting we use today for men's Italian
wool suits are not scratchy. Neither is my woolen work pants suiting.
We make stuff for babies from wool because it's soft. Just thoughts
to consider.
The next issue is the cost.
I get it. Wool isn't cheap. Actaully nothing is cheap. I like to
compare the cost of wool for one re-enactment kirtle to the cost
of a special event dress- New Year Eve or a wedding dress. And I'll
remind you that you (generally) get one wear from a wedding dress
and many many wears for a kirtle if it's made from nice fabric.
A lot of wools in the mid range can be dressed up with silk accessories
for more noble impressions and dressed down for townswoman impressions
with a change of headwear, jewellery and accessories. One good garment
which you don't need to replace is better than three replaceable
ones "when you get more money." We spend money on medieval
shoes, glassware, pottery, tents and still grumble about the price
difference between linen and wool. (oh yes, I've been that person)
Next issue is not knowing what
kind of wool to order because let's face it, most of us are shopping
online. Here I personally have a bit of a melt down. I hate online
shopping as I really REALLY like to see and touch wool before I
commit. Also, I am not a cloth expert. I sew things. I make things.
But what type of wool? I struggle with kinds of wool to buy. Find
a trusted friend. Ask the shop for samples. Ask that person on facebook
where they got their wool from and what kind it is. The shipping
is the killer in most cases, but if we are honest, ten cups of coffee
is abut the price of shipping. Coffee is expensive, expecially if
you're having cake with it. My very best advice is to sign up for
online notifications for all the places which sell what you want
and wait for their Black Friday or Christmas or Pop-up 24 hour sales.
THAT's the time to buy!
Conclusion
of conclusions
I've worn linen clothing happily for many years, and only now begrudgingly
decided that I can't really justify doing what I'm doing and being
a fair and reasonable representation of what I do- a medieval woman
in England- wearing it. I now have a ton of things I will
be passing on and am deeply regretting not spending the money on
wool in the first place.
I've saved absolutely nothing by choosing linen. Every group throughout
the world has their own standards of what constitutes accurate clothing
and what constitutes acceptible clothing and it isn't the purpose
of this page to make those decisions. Always refer to your group
draper. Always consider what you are doing and who you are meant
to be and the country you re-enact.
And most of all, whatever you
decide is right for you, always have fun.
Rosalie
